The Middle Ages: War and Change
The period between the Norman Conquest and 1485 is known as the Middle Ages. This era was marked by frequent conflicts, both within Britain and abroad.
Conflicts Within Britain
English monarchs battled Welsh, Scottish, and Irish nobles for control of their lands. In Wales, England established dominance with the Statute of Rhuddlan in 1284, annexing Wales to the English crown. Imposing castles, like Conwy and Caernarvon, reinforced English power. By the mid-15th century, Welsh rebellions were quelled, and English laws and language were implemented.
English attempts to conquer Scotland proved less successful. In 1314, Robert the Bruce led the Scots to victory at the Battle of Bannockburn, securing Scotland’s independence.
In Ireland, English forces initially arrived to assist the Irish king but gradually established their own settlements. By 1200, English rule extended over the Pale around Dublin, with some Irish lords accepting English authority.
Wars Abroad
English involvement in the Crusades saw knights fighting for control of the Holy Land. The Hundred Years War, a protracted conflict with France, included notable battles like Agincourt in 1415, where Henry V’s English army triumphed despite being outnumbered. English forces eventually withdrew from France in the 1450s.
Feudalism and the Black Death
The feudal system, established by the Normans, shaped medieval society. Land was granted by the king to lords in exchange for military service. Peasants, many of whom were serfs, worked the land for their lord in exchange for a small plot for their own sustenance.
In 1348, the Black Death, a devastating plague, swept through Britain, wiping out a third of the population. This catastrophe led to labour shortages, higher wages for peasants, and the emergence of new social classes, including landowners (gentry) and a growing middle class in towns.
Legal and Political Developments
The Middle Ages witnessed the evolution of Parliament. Originating from the king’s council of advisors, Parliament gradually gained influence. The Magna Carta, signed in 1215, limited the king’s power and established the principle that everyone, including the monarch, is subject to the law.
The English Parliament developed two houses: the House of Lords, comprised of nobles and high-ranking clergy, and the House of Commons, with elected representatives from towns and cities. Scotland also established a Parliament with three Estates: lords, commons, and clergy.
The legal system advanced with the concept of judicial independence. In England, common law developed based on precedent and tradition, while Scotland codified its laws.
Cultural and Linguistic Identity
The Middle Ages saw the fusion of Norman French and Anglo-Saxon, giving rise to the English language we know today. By 1400, English was used in official documents and became the language of the royal court and Parliament.
Geoffrey Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales, a collection of poems written in English around 1400, captured the spirit of the age and contributed to the development of English literature. In Scotland, Gaelic and Scots languages flourished, with poets like John Barbour contributing to Scottish literature.
Architecture and Trade
Castles and grand cathedrals, like Lincoln Cathedral, were built during the Middle Ages, many still standing today. Stained glass windows, such as those in York Minster, adorned these structures, depicting biblical stories and Christian saints.
England thrived as a trading nation, with wool as a major export. Skilled workers from across Europe contributed to England’s economy and society.
The Wars of the Roses
A civil war, known as the Wars of the Roses, erupted in 1455, contesting the English throne between the Houses of York and Lancaster. The Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 marked the end of the war, with Henry Tudor (Lancaster) defeating Richard III (York). Henry VII’s marriage to Elizabeth of York united the two houses, establishing the Tudor dynasty.