Religious Conflicts and the Reformation

Following the Wars of the Roses, Henry VII focused on consolidating power and ensuring peace in England. He strengthened central administration and reduced the influence of the nobility. His son, Henry VIII, continued this centralization of power but is most remembered for his break from the Roman Catholic Church and his six marriages.

Henry VIII’s desire to divorce his first wife, Catherine of Aragon, and marry Anne Boleyn led to a clash with the Pope. In defiance, Henry established the Church of England, with himself as its head, thus initiating the English Reformation.

This period coincided with the broader Protestant Reformation in Europe, challenging the authority of the Pope and Catholic practices. Protestant ideas, emphasizing individual faith and scripture, gained traction in England, Wales, and Scotland. However, attempts to impose Protestantism in Ireland, coupled with changes to land inheritance laws, triggered rebellions and violent conflicts.

During Henry VIII’s reign, Wales was formally united with England. Henry’s successors, Edward VI and Mary I, had contrasting religious views, leading to further religious and political turmoil. Elizabeth I, who succeeded Mary, restored the Church of England and skilfully navigated religious tensions, establishing a balance between Catholic and Protestant factions. Her reign, marked by the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588, became a golden age of English patriotism and cultural flourishing.

The Reformation in Scotland and Mary, Queen of Scots

Scotland also embraced Protestant ideas. In 1560, the Scottish Parliament abolished papal authority and established a Protestant Church of Scotland. Mary, Queen of Scots, a Catholic, faced political challenges and religious conflicts, ultimately abdicating in favour of her son, James VI. Mary’s imprisonment and execution in England fuelled tensions between the two countries.

Exploration, Literature, and the Arts

The Elizabethan era was a time of exploration and expansion, with figures like Sir Francis Drake circumnavigating the globe and English settlements taking root in North America. This period also witnessed a flowering of literature and drama, most notably with the works of William Shakespeare. Shakespeare’s plays and poems, still performed and studied today, enriched the English language and left an enduring legacy.

James VI and I and the Rise of Parliament

Upon Elizabeth I’s death, James VI of Scotland ascended to the English throne as James I, uniting the crowns but not the countries. One of his notable achievements was the King James Version of the Bible, a translation that remains influential in Protestant churches today.

In Ireland, opposition to English rule and the imposition of Protestantism persisted. Plantations, settlements of Scottish and English Protestants in Ulster and other parts of Ireland, further exacerbated tensions and had long-lasting consequences.

Elizabeth I skilfully managed Parliament, balancing her authority with the growing influence of the House of Commons. However, James I and his son, Charles I, clashed with Parliament, adhering to the Divine Right of Kings. Charles I’s attempts to rule without Parliament and impose religious reforms led to unrest and eventually the English Civil War.

The English Civil War and the Republic

The English Civil War pitted supporters of the king (Cavaliers) against those of Parliament (Roundheads). Parliamentary forces, led by Oliver Cromwell, emerged victorious. Charles I was executed, and England became a republic, the Commonwealth. Cromwell, as Lord Protector, established control over England, Scotland, and Ireland, though his actions in Ireland remain controversial.

After Cromwell’s death, the republic faltered, leading to the restoration of the monarchy.

The Restoration and the Glorious Revolution

In 1660, Charles II was restored to the throne, marking the end of the republic. He navigated a delicate balance between his own authority and the power of Parliament. His reign witnessed significant events like the Great Plague of London, the Great Fire of London, and the passage of the Habeas Corpus Act, which protected individual liberty.

Charles II’s successor, James II, a Catholic, sparked fears of a return to Catholic rule. His attempts to favour Catholics and bypass Parliament led to the Glorious Revolution of 1688. William of Orange, invited by Protestant leaders, ascended the throne as William III, ruling jointly with Mary II. This bloodless revolution secured the power of Parliament and established a constitutional monarchy.